29th October 2011 9:00
By Ameer Virani
Language learning is a complex and lengthy process which can be affected by a number of different learner variables. These variables are interlinked and need to be combined in order to form a ‘good language learner’. They include factors such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, different learning styles and learner beliefs. Here, the importance of learner’s age will be analysed. The focus will be on language learning under formal instruction i.e. in the classroom, rather than language learning through natural exposure i.e. in the case of immigrants. Although the variable is part of a combination of factors which affect language learning, it will be analyzed as a separate entity. The way in which a teacher must consider this variable when planning a lesson will also be discussed.
Scholarly attention has long been focused on the idea that one’s age is a major factor in how efficient one is as a learner. When considering the effect of age of the language learner on language learning, the question concerns the age at which second language (L2) instruction should begin. The theory of a critical period is one that is talked about very often. It is a theory more associated with first language acquisition but can also be applied to L2 learning. It is defined as the period in which the learner is between 6 and 12 years of age and suggests that younger learners can achieve a higher rate of fluency than older learners. When analysing the critical period hypothesis, four different attitudes must be considered:
‘Younger = better’
Within this section, much attention is paid to the fact that younger learners have superior oral skills to older learners. Kirch (1956) reports that grade 1 learners of German as a second language had better pronunciation than grade 3, grade 6 and university-level learners. This is backed up by the opinion that “phonological proficiency (pronunciation) can attain a native-like quality only if the second (or foreign) language learning begins before the end of the critical period – i.e. not later than 6 or 12 years of age.” The ‘younger = better’ theory, however, cannot be considered totally accurate as more studies have been done on the young than on the old. One could also say that the theory does not favour language learning on the whole, but just the oral aspect.
But McLeish (1963) said this superiority could “be accounted for entirely in terms of one test – oral directions.” Older learners have ‘poor phonetic coding ability’ (“the ability to identify and store in long-term memory, new language sounds or strings of sounds”) and thus are inferior to younger learners when it comes to phonology. Continuing with oral skills, accent will now be discussed.
‘Younger = better at acquiring accent’
It is said that younger learners are more successful at acquiring a native-like accent in the language they are learning. This can be put down to the fact that learners who are not exposed to the second language at a young age will find it difficult to acquire it at an older age when they are more accustomed to speaking in their first language accent than younger learners. Older learners are also often less inclined to move away from their own accent.
‘Older = better’
In this situation, it is important to note the increasing number of older learners in the classroom. When one thinks of a classroom, one thinks of school pupils. Due to falling birth rates in industrialized countries, however, there is a higher proportion of old people. Many of them are returning to formal education. A test carried out by Oller & Nagato (1974) negates the ‘younger = better’ argument. It compares the performance of students with six years of primary school experience of English with those with no prior instruction in English. The results showed that the difference between the two groups’ performance gradually diminished from the seventh grade to the eleventh grade. This adheres to the ‘older = better’ argument because it shows that “older beginners can assimilate as much in five years as younger beginners can in eleven.” Adults proceed through the early stages of syntactic and morphological development quicker than children and they also have a better knowledge of reading and writing techniques in their own language. This means that they are also better at these two aspects of L2 learning. The reduced importance of foreign languages in the National Curriculum shows a reduced focus on young L2 learners.
‘Younger = better in the long run’
This theory allows for the “possibility that there is no global advantage for either younger or older second language learners but that each age-group has its particular strengths and weaknesses.” It infers that L2 learning is a lengthy process and that by starting early, the advantages of starting young can be experienced while also allowing for the strengths of older learners later on in the L2 learning process. Early language learning also allows the basics to be laid down early, allowing for more complicated exercises later on. Carroll’s (1969, 1975) research present a very straightforward finding that the amount of instruction is most important in predicting language success. Thus, younger learners are expected to reach a higher level because of more exposure, practice and interaction in the long run.
Further evidence:
Burstall (1974) compares pupils at secondary school. Some have primary school exposure to French and others do not. His findings show that by the age of 16, the pupils with primary school experience were only superior on the Listening test, while those who started learning French at secondary school were superior on both the Reading and Writing tests. The Speaking test produced parallel results.
Planning a lesson
As already mentioned, different age groups have their own strengths and weaknesses. These must be considered by the teacher when deciding on classroom activities. Numerous tests have shown that oral and listening skills are superior amongst younger learners and reading and writing skills superior amongst older learners. Therefore, it is important as a teacher to focus on developing the learners’ strengths. That means focusing on oral skills with younger learners as this is the stage when they can develop this skill most successfully. Similarly, more focus should be given to reading and writing with older learners. It is important to frequently practice speaking with school pupils as they are usually less anxious about making mistakes than older students. Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that L2 learning is a four-pronged process (reading, listening, writing, and speaking) and all must be covered to some extent. For example, not practicing oral skills and allowing older learners to be too conscious about grammatical forms can lead to many non-native constructions.
It is said that young people who focus too much on grammar make the least progress, while older learners are more capable of focusing on and developing grammatical forms. Young learners should be encouraged to ‘acquire’ the grammar through sentence formation whereas adults are more conscious about grammatical forms and therefore the teacher should think about their need to directly ‘learn’ the grammar.
No matter how much the issue about whether it is advantageous to start L2 learning in primary school is debated, it can be rendered pointless if the quality of primary school teaching is not up to scratch. Teachers have to ensure that they are teaching in an effective manner. Unqualified teachers who are placed in charge of L2 teaching can have a negative effect on pupils as this can give rise to negative attitudes towards the language, or the learning of languages in general, at a very young age. The teacher’s main role with young learners is to make them enjoy the language as this allows them to absorb more. As already discussed, the native accent is something that is easier to pick up at a young age. Therefore, primary teachers must speak with as authentic an accent as possible, even if their language skills may not be as advanced as secondary school teachers.
The materials used in the classroom must be produced with the learner’s age in mind. In the early stages of L2 learning, memory is based on visual aspects more for younger learners than for older learners. This means that the use of visual aids in the classroom, especially at primary school, is a must. Written tasks, such as essay writing, are seen to be more effective with older learners, whose ability to concentrate is greater. Visual aids can also be used subtly with older learners, as Danks & Sorce (1973) found: “When adults were asked to recall passive sentences, a high imagery prompt word yielded better recall than a low imagery prompt word.”
When differentiating between school pupils and adult learners the teacher must take into account the fact that many adult learners will be more motivated as they would have voluntarily invested a lot of money into the process, while younger learners may be forced to learn a second language at school. This means the teacher has to work a lot harder with school pupils to get them to interact with the language out of the classroom. This is in the form of homework. Adults would be expected to seek out opportunities to use and practice the language without such prompting. Younger learners also require more persuasion to correct their work and learn from mistakes. This comes down to concentration on detail. It could be said that at a younger age, classroom attention should be focused on developing the learner’s fluency, while older students should have more attention focused on their accuracy.
An organizational factor that is important for teachers teaching adults is the timing of lessons. In school, of course, pupils have a fixed timetable, whereas lessons for adults are more difficult to arrange because people are free at different times. Some adults also find it difficult to return to the classroom and the teacher-student relationship can be awkward. The teacher must not be too authoritarian. These factors, however rudimentary, must be taken into account.
Summary
Research has found it difficult to prove whether older or younger learners are superior at L2 learning. There is no global advantage for either group of learners and therefore both their strengths and weaknesses have to be taken into account when planning a suitable lesson. According to the critical period hypothesis, younger learners are better, but this is only in regards to oral skills. In terms of reading and writing skills, older learners are considered more effective.